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Chapter 13: Exceptions

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In C there are several ways to have a program react to situations which break the normal unhampered flow of the program:

• The function may notice the abnormality and issue a message. This is probably the least disastrous reaction a program may show.
• The function in which the abnormality is observed may decide to stop its intended task, returning an errorcode to its caller. This is a great example of postponing decisions: now the calling function is faced with a problem. Of course the calling function may act similarly, by passing the error-code up to its caller.
• The function may decide that things are going out of hand, and may call exit() to terminate the program completely. A tough way to handle a problem.
• The function may use a combination of the functions setjmp() and longjmp()) to enforce non-local exits. This mechanism implements a kind of goto jump, allowing the program to proceed at an outer section, skipping the intermediate levels which would have to be visited if a series of returns from nested functions would have been used.

In C++ all the above ways to handle flow-breaking situations are still available. However, the last way, using setjmp() and longjmp() isn't often seen in C++ (or even in C) programs, due to the fact that the program flow is completely disrupted.

In C++ the alternative to using setjmp() and longjmp() are exceptions. Exceptions are a mechanism by which a controlled non-local exit is realized within the context of a C++ program, without the disadvantages of longjmp() and setjmp().

Exceptions are the proper way to bail out of a situation which cannot be handled easily by a function itself, but which are not disastrous enough for the program to terminate completely. Also, exceptions provide a flexible layer of flow control between the short-range return and the crude exit().

In this chapter the use of exceptions and their syntax will be discussed. First an example of the different impacts exceptions and setjmp() and longjmp() have on the the program will be given. Then the discussion will dig into the formalities of the use of exceptions.

13.1: Using exceptions: an outline

• try. The try-block surrounds statements in which exceptions may be generated (the parlance is for exceptions to be thrown). Example:

  
      try
      {
          // statements in which
          // exceptions may be thrown
      }
  
  

• throw: followed by an expression of a certain type, throws the expressionvalue as an exception. The throw statement should be executed somewhere within the try-block: either directly or from within a function called directly or indirectly from the try-block. Example:

  
      throw "This generates a char * exception";
  
  

• catch: Immediately following the try-block, the catch-block receives the thrown exceptions. Example of a catch-block receiving char * exceptions:

  
      catch (char *message)
      {
          // statements in which
          // the thrown char * exceptions 
          // are processed
      }
  
  

13.1.1: Compiling sources in which exceptions are used

If the keywords throw, try or catch are used in a sourcetext, or if a sourcefile contains a function calling another function which may throw an exception the

The easy way-out would of course be to include the -fhandle-exceptions all the time, but it appears as though this doesn't always work properly, sometimes resulting in linker-problems.

Fortunately it is usually well known whether a function may throw exceptions, either directly or indirectly, and so the need for the

13.2: An example using exceptions

That's about it. The function Outer::fun() terminates, and the destructor of the Inner object is called. Then the program terminates and the destructor of the Outer object is called.

Here is the basic program:

#include <iostream.h>

class Inner
{
    public:
        Inner();
        ~Inner();
        void fun();    
};

class Outer
{
    public:
        Outer();
        ~Outer();
        void fun();
    private:
};

Inner::Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner constructor\n";
}    

Inner::~Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner destructor\n";
}    

void Inner::fun()
{
    cout << "Inner fun\n";
}    

Outer::Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer constructor\n";
}    

Outer::~Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer destructor\n";
}    

void Outer::fun()
{
    Inner
        in;

    cout << "Outer fun\n";
    in.fun();
}    

int main()
{
    Outer
        out;

    out.fun();
}

This program can be compiled and run, producing the following output:

    Outer constructor
    Inner constructor
    Outer fun
    Inner fun
    Inner destructor
    Outer destructor

Now let's focus our attention on two variants, in which we simulate a non-fatal disastrous event to take place in the Inner::fun() function, which is supposedly handled somewhere at the end of the function main(). We'll consider two variants. The first variant will try to handle this situation using setjmp() and longjmp(), the second variant will try to handle this situation using C++'s exception mechanism.

13.2.1: No exceptions: the setjmp() and longjmp() approach

To complete the simulation, the returnvalue of the program is zero if only we would have been able to return from the function Outer::fun() normally. However, as we know, this won't happen. Inner:fun() calls longjmp(), returning to the setjmp() function, which (at this time) will not return a zero returnvalue. Hence, after calling Inner::fun() from Outer::fun() the program proceeds beyond the if-statement in the main() function, and the program terminates with the returnvalue 1.

Now try to follow these steps by studying the next program source, modified after the basic program given in section 13.2:

#include <iostream.h>
#include <setjmp.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

class Inner
{
    public:
        Inner();
        ~Inner();
        void fun();
};

class Outer
{
    public:
        Outer();
        ~Outer();
        void fun();
};

jmp_buf
    jmpBuf;

Inner::Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner constructor\n";
}    

void Inner::fun()
{
    cout << "Inner fun()\n";
    longjmp(jmpBuf, 0);
}    

Inner::~Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner destructor\n";
}    

Outer::Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer constructor\n";
}    

Outer::~Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer destructor\n";
}    

void Outer::fun()
{
    Inner
        in;
    cout << "Outer fun\n";
    in.fun();
}    

int main()
{
    Outer
        out;

    if (!setjmp(jmpBuf))
    {
        out.fun();
        return (0);
    }

    return (1);
}

Running the above program produces the following output:

    Outer constructor
    Inner constructor
    Outer fun
    Inner fun()
    Outer destructor

Since the destructors of objects can easily be skipped when longjmp() and setjmp() are used, it's probably best to skip these function completely in C++ program.

13.2.2: Exceptions: the preferred alternative

#include <iostream.h>

class Inner
{
    public:
        Inner();
        ~Inner();
        void fun();
};

class Outer
{
    public:
        Outer();
        ~Outer();
        void fun();
};

Inner::Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner constructor\n";
}    

Inner::~Inner()
{
    cout << "Inner destructor\n";
}    

void Inner::fun()
{
    cout << "Inner fun\n";
    throw 1;
    cout << "This statement is not executed\n";
}    

Outer::Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer constructor\n";
}    

Outer::~Outer()
{
    cout << "Outer destructor\n";
}    

void Outer::fun()
{
    Inner
        in;
    cout << "Outer fun\n";
    in.fun();
}    


int main()
{
    Outer
        out;
    try
    {
        out.fun();
    }
    catch (...)
    {}
}

In this program an exception is thrown, where a longjmp() was used in the program in section 13.2.1. The comparable construct for the setjmp() call in that program is represented here by the try and catch blocks. The try block surrounds statements (including function calls) in which exceptions are thrown, the catch block may contain statements to be executed just after throwing an exception.

So, like section 13.2.1, the execution of function Inner::fun() terminates, albeit with an exception, rather than a longjmp(). The exception is caught in main(), and the program terminates.

Now look at the output generated by this program:

    Outer constructor
    Inner constructor
    Outer fun
    Inner fun
    Inner destructor
    Outer destructor

Note that the destructor of the Inner object, created in Outer::fun() is now called again. On the other hand, execution of the function Inner::fun() really terminates at the throw statement: the insertion of the text into cout, just beyond the throw statement, isn't performed.

So, with our illustrations we hope to have raised your appetite for exceptions by showing that

• Exceptions provide a means to break out of the normal flow control without having to use a cascade of return-statements, and without having to terminate the program.
• Exceptions do not disrupt the activation of destructors, and are therefore strongly preferred over the use of setjmp() and longjmp().

13.3: Throwing exceptions

    throw "Hello world";        // throws a char *
    throw 18;                   // throws an int
    throw new String("hello");  // throws a String *,

The next source illustrates this point. Within the function Object::fun() a local Object toThrow is created, which is thereupon thrown as an exception. The exception is caught outside of Object::fun(), in main(). At this point the thrown object doesn't actually exist anymore, and in a real-life situation its destructor would normally have deleted its name-field. In the example, however, the memory for the name is static, and is therefore still available, so we're able to complete out illustration about what's happening when a locally defined object is thrown.

Let's first take a look at the sourcetext:

#include <iostream.h>

class Object
{
    public:
        Object(char const *name);
        ~Object();
        void fun();
        void hello();
    private:
        char const 
            *name;
};

Object::Object(char const *n)
{
    name = n;
    cout << "Object constructor of " << name << "\n";
}    

Object::~Object()
{
    cout << "Object destructor of " << name << "\n";
}    

void Object::fun()
{
    Object 
        toThrow("'local object'");

    cout << "Object fun() of " << name << "\n";
    throw toThrow;
}    

void Object::hello()
{
    cout << "Hello by " << name << "\n";
}    

int main()
{
    Object
        out("'main object'");

    try
    {
        out.fun();
    }
    catch (Object o)
    {
        cout << "Caught exception\n";
        o.hello();
    }
}

Now take a close look at the output generated by this program (line numbers were added by us):

    Object constructor of 'main object'     (1)
    Object constructor of 'local object'    (2)
    Object fun() of 'main object'           (3)
    Object destructor of 'local object'     (4)
    Caught exception                        (5)
    Hello by 'local object'                 (6)
    Object destructor of 'main object'      (7)

This is of course not what we want. But apart from that, the program behaves properly. When the exception is thrown in Object::fun(), the destructor of the local object toThrow is called. Then, the program picks up the execution again in main() at the catch-block. At that point the thrown toThrow object is received, and its hello() function is called. Fortunately, the Object destructor didn't destroy the name-field, otherwise the program would have tried to access foreign memory.

Summarizing, local objects should not be thrown, nor should pointers to local objects be thrown. However, it is possible to throw pointers or references to dynamically generated objects, taking care that the generated object is properly deleted when the generated exception is caught. So, the Object::fun() and the catch-block can be altered as follows to throw and catch pointers to Objects:

    void Object::fun()
    {
        cout << "Object fun() of " << name << "\n";
        throw new Object("'new object'");
    }    

    // and in main():
    ...
    catch (Object *o)
    {
        cout << "Caught exception\n";
        o->hello();
        delete o;
    }

Alternatively, realizing that references are little more than pointers, masquerading as plain variables, references could be used instead of pointers. Here's the required code:

    void Object::fun()
    {
        cout << "Object fun() of " << name << "\n";
        throw *new Object("'new object'");
    }    

    // and in main():
    ...
    catch (Object &o)
    {
        cout << "Caught exception\n";
        o.hello();
        delete &o;
    }

Each of these situations are enough reason to terminate the processing of the expression at hand, but there's no need to terminate the program. Each component of the processing of the expression may therefore throw an exception. E.g.,

    ...
    if (parse(expressionBuffer)) // parsing failed ?
        throw "Syntax error in expression";
    ...
    if (lookup(variableName))
        throw "Variable not defined";
    ...
    if (illegalDivision())
        throw "Division by zero is not defined";

    if (lookup(variableName))
        throw formatMessage("Variable '%s' not defined", variableName);

13.3.1: The empty throw statement

In this situation an intermediate exception handler is called for. A thrown exception is first inspected at the middle level. If possible it's processed there. If it's not possible to process the exception at the middle level, it's passed on unaltered to a more superficial level, where the really tough exceptions are handled.

By placing an empty throw statement in the code handling an exception the received exception is passed on to the next level able to process that particular type of exception.

In our server-client situation a function

    void initialExceptionHandler(char *exception)
    {
        if (plainMessage(exception))
            handleTheMessage(exception);
        else
            throw;
    }

Does this sound intriguing? Suppose we have a class Exception, containing a memberfunction Exception::Type Exception::severity(). This memberfunction tells us (little wonder!) the severity of a thrown exception. It might be Message, Warning, Mistake, Error or Fatal. Furthermore, depending on the severity, a thrown exception may contain less or more information, somehow processed by a function process(). In addition to this, all exceptions have a plain-text producing memberfunction toString(), telling us a bit more about the nature of the generated exception. This smells a lot like polymorphism, showing process() as a virtual function for the derived classes Message, Warning, Mistake, Error and Fatal.

Now the program may throw all these five types of exceptions Let's assume that the Message and Warning exceptions are processable by our initialExceptionHandler(). Then its code would become:

    void initialExceptionHandler(Exception *e)
    {
                    // show the plain-text information
        cout << e->toString() << endl;  

                            // Can we process it ?
        if (e->severity <= Exception::Warning)
            e->process();   // It's either a message
                            // or a warning
        else
            throw;          // No, pass it on
    }

    throw new Message(<arguments>);
    throw new Warning(<arguments>);
    throw new Mistake(<arguments>);
    throw new Error(<arguments>);
    throw new Fatal(<arguments>); 

13.4: The try block

The keyword try is followed by a set of curly braces, which acts like a standard C++ compound statement: multiple statements and variable definitions may be placed here.

It is possible (and very common) to create levels in which exceptions may be thrown. For example, code within the main() function is surrounded by a try-block, forming an outer level in which exceptions can be handled. Within main()'s try-block, functions are called which may also contain try-blocks, forming the next level in which exceptions may be placed. As we have seen (in section 13.3.1) exceptions thrown in inner level try-blocks may or may not be processed at that level. By placing an empty throw in an exception handler, the thrown exception is passed on to the next (outer) level.

If an exception is thrown outside of any try-block, then the default way to process (uncaught) exceptions is used, which is usually to abort the program. Try to compile and run the following tiny program, and see what happens:

    int main()
    {
        throw "hello";
    }

13.5: Catching exceptions

So, an exception handler for char * exceptions will have the following form:

    catch (char const *message)
    {
        // code to handle the message
    }

Generally close attention must be paid to the nature of the parameter of the exception handler, to make sure that dynamically generated exceptions are deleted once the handler has processed them. Of course, when an exception is passed on upwards to an outer level exception handler, the received exception should not be deleted by the inner level handler.

Different exception types may be thrown: char *\s, ints, pointers or references to objects, etc.: all these different types may be used in throwing and catching exceptions. So, the exceptions appearing at the end of a try-block may be of different types. In order to catch all the types that may appear at the end of a try-block, multiple exception handlers (i.e., catch-blocks) may follow the try-block.

The order in which the exception handlers are placed is important. When an exception is thrown, the first exception handler matching the type of the thrown exception is selected, remaining exception handlers are skipped. So only one exception handler following a try-block will be executed. Consequently, exception handlers should be placed from the ones having the most specific parameters to the ones having more general parameters. For example, if exception handlers are defined for char *s and void *\s (i.e., any old pointer) then the exception handler for the former exception type should be placed before the exception handler for the latter type:

    try
    {
        // code may throw char pointers
        // and other pointers
    }
    catch (char *message)
    {
        // code processing the char pointers
        // thrown as exceptions
    }
    catch (void *whatever)
    {
        // code processing all other pointers
        // thrown as exceptions
    }

    try
    {
        // code may throw only
        // Exception pointers
    }
    catch (Exception *e)
    {
        // code processing the Exception pointer
        delete e;    
    }

When the code of an exception handler that is placed beyond a try-block has been processed, the execution of the program continues beyond the last exception handler following that try-block (unless the handler uses return, throw or exit() to leave the function prematurely). So we have the following cases:

• If no exception was thrown within the try-block no exception handler is activated, and the execution continues from the last statement in the try-block to the first statement beyond the last catch-block.
• If an exception was thrown within the try-block but neither the current level nor an other level contains an appropriate exception handler, the program's default exception handler is called, usually aborting the program.
• If an exception was thrown within the try-block and an appropriate exception handler is available, then that the code of that exception handler is exectuted. Following the execution of the code of the exception handler, the execution of the program continues at the first statement beyond the last catch-block.

The actual construction of the Exception object may be performed in various degrees of sophistication. Possibilities are using a plain new operator, using static memberfunctions of the class Exception dedicated to a particular kind of exception, returning a pointer to an Exception object, or using objects of classes derived from the class Exception, possibly involving polymorphism.

13.5.1: The default catcher

This situation is implemented using the default exception handler, which will (because of the reason given in the previous section 13.5) be placed beyond all other, more specific exception handlers. Often the default exception handler will be used in combination with the empty throw statement, discused in section 13.3.1.

Here is an example showing the use of a default exception handler:

    try
    {
        // this code may throw
        // different types of 
        // exceptions
    }
    catch (char *message)
    {
        // code to process
        // char pointers
    }
    catch (int value)
    {
        // code to process
        // ints
    }
    catch (...)
    {
        // code to process other exceptions,
        // often passing the exception on
        // to outer level exception handlers:
            
        throw;
    } 

13.6: Declaring exception throwers

These external function may of course throw exceptions. The declaration of such functions may contain a function throw list, in which the types of the exceptions that can be thrown by the function are specified. For example, a function that may throw char * and int exceptions can be declared as

A function for which a function throw list was specified is not allowed to throw other types of exceptions. A run-time error occurs if it does throw other types of exceptions than mentioned in the function throw list.

If a function throw list is specified in the declaration, it must also be given in the definition of the function. For example, using declaration and definition in the same example:

    #include <iostream.h>
    
    void intThrower() throw(int);
    void charP_IntThrower() throw (char *, int);
    
    void intThrower(int x) throw (int)
    {
        if (x)
            throw x;
    }
    
    void charP_IntThrower() throw (char *, int)
    {
        int
            x;
        cout << "Enter an int: ";
        cout.flush();
        cin >> x;
    
        intThrower(x);
        throw "from charP_IntThrower() with love";
        
    }
        
    int main()
    {
        try
        {
             charP_IntThrower();
        }    
        catch (char *message)
        {
            cout << "Text exception: " << message << endl;
        }
        catch (int value)
        {
            cout << "Int exception: " << value << endl;
        }
        return (0);
    }

If a function doesn't throw exceptions an empty function throw list may be used. E.g.,

If the function throw list is not used, the function may either throw exceptions (of any kind) or not throw exceptions at all. Without a function throw list all responsibilities of providing the correct handlers is in the hands of the designer of the program....

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